This Is Your Brain, On!

Your Neurotransmitters

• Overview
• Acetylcholine (ACh)
• Dopamine (DA)
• Endocannabinoids
• GABA
• Glutamate (GLU)
• Histamine (HA)
• Norepinephrine (NE)
• Endorphins (opioids)
• Orexin (OX)
• Serotonin (5HT)

Your Neurons

• The Basics
• Cholinergic
• Dopaminergic
• GABAergic
• Glial Cells
• Glutamatergic
• Histaminergic
• Noradregenergic
• Opioid
• Orexinergic
• Serotonergic

Your Receptors

• All Excitatory
• All Inhibitory
• AMPA
• Cannabinoid
• Kainate
• NMDA
• Opioid (μ, δ, κ)

Your Transporters

• ⭯ DAT
• ⭯ NET
• ⭯ SERT

Chemicals of Interest

• Caffeine
• Nicotine

References

About this site.

Disclaimer

This website does not provide medical advice. The information, including but not limited to, text, images, and other content contained, are strictly for informational purposes only. No material on this website is intended to be a substitute for professional medical advice, diagnostics, or treatment. Always seek the advice of a physician or other qualified healthcare provider with any questions you have regarding a medical condition or treatment. Never disregard professional medical advice or delay seeking medical advice because of something you have read on this website.

About

This Is Your Brain, On! is a simplified guide to your neurons and the neurotransmitters they produce.Created November 2022.

This site would not have been possible without the fantastic book "Stahl's Essential Psychopharmacology (5th edition)". You need a copy fr.Massive thanks to Stephen M. Stahl, Meghan M. Grady, and Nancy Muntner for the work put in to this indispensable resource.

Contact

Check back later.

Resources

YOUR NEURONS

THE BASICS

• Neuron Anatomy
• Link

BASICS

Your neurons communicate with each other by releasing neurotransmitters (NTs).These chemical messengers influence other neurons and sometimes other cells in your body.

Although electrical signals travel through a neuron, communication between neurons is always chemical.

NEURON ANATOMY

Neurons come in many shapes and sizes, but in general, they all have the following:

Your neurons receive chemical messages through receptors on their dendrites.This is converted to electrical signals inside the neuron. The signal travels down the axon, until it reaches the axon terminal (antenna tip), where the signal forces the neuron to release neurotransmitters and pass the message to other neurons.

Are your neurons simply passing the same message down the line? No!Each neuron makes one neurotransmitter, depending on what kind it is, but its receptors can respond to many chemicals.

NEURON FEATURES

According to StressMarq Biosciences:

There are two types of neurotransmitter receptors;

Ligand binding causes the opening or closing of the channel, thereby controlling the flow of ions (Na^+^, K^+^, Ca^2+^, Cl^-^) into the cell.

Examples of ionotropic receptors:

Metabotropic receptors do not have a channel that is not opened or closed by ligand binding. When activated they instead modulate... second messengers.

Examples of metabotropic receptors:

ACETYLCHOLINE (ACh)

C₇H₁₆NO₂⁺

• The Cholinergic Neuron
• ACh Synthesis
• ACh Receptors

See on PubChem

ACETYLCHOLINE SYNTHESIS

ACh synthesis begins with choline and the enzyme acetyl coenzyme A.

ENZYME STEPS

Why is it called acetylcholine?

There is an acetyl group (-COCH₃) attached to a choline structure.

DOPAMINE (DA)

3,4-DIHYDROXYPHENETHYLAMINE

C₈H₁₁NO₂

• The Dopamine Neuron
• DA Synthesis
• DA Receptors

See on PubChem

THE DOPAMINE NEURON

Dopaminergic neurons produce dopamine, which is associated with mood, reward, and motivation.

Postsynaptic (Input) Receptors

D1, D2, D3, D4, D5

D2, D3

Presynaptic Autoreceptors

TRANSPORTERS

OVERVIEW

DOPAMINE SYNTHESIS

DA synthesis begins when tyrosine (TYR) is taken up into dopamine neurons.

ENZYME STEPS

Why is it called dopamine?

3,4-dihydroxyphenethylamine

There are two hydroxyl groups (dihydroxy) on the 3rd and 4th carbons (3,4) of the phenethylamine.

ANANDAMIDE

N-arachidonoylethanolamine

C₂₂H₃₇NO₂

2-AG

2-arachidonoylglycerol

C₂₃H₃₈O₄

Animated anandamide (ANA) molecule by Mplanine. Notice the single blue nitrogen.

2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG) molecule by Mplanine. Notice the four red oxygens.

• Cannabinoid Receptors

γ-AMINOBUTYRIC ACID (GABA)

C₄H₉NO₂

• The GABAergic Neuron
• GABA Synthesis
• GABA Receptors

See on PubChem

GABA is the main inhibitory neurotransmitter of the central nervous system (CNS).

GABA SYNTHESIS

GABA synthesis begins with glutamine.

ENZYME STEPS

Why is it called γ-aminobutyric acid and 4-aminobutyric acid?

There is an amino group (NH₂) on the fourth carbon of the butyric acid structure.

Gamma (γ) means three in chemistry. Gamma-amino structures are defined as having three carbons between the carbonyl (C=O) and amino (NH₂) ends.

GLUTAMATE (GLU)

GLUTAMIC ACID

C₅H₉NO₄

• The Glutamatergic Neuron
• GLU Synthesis
• GLU Receptors

See on PubChem

Glutamate is the main excitatory neurotransmitter of the central nervous system (CNS).

GLUTAMATE SYNTHESIS

GLU (glutamic acid) synthesis begins with glutamine.

ENZYME STEPS

Why is it called glutamate?

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HISTAMINE (HA)

C₅H₉N₃

• The Histaminergic Neuron
• HA Synthesis
• HA Receptors

See on PubChem

THE HISTAMINE NEURON

Histamine neurons produce histamine, which is associated with wakefulness.

Postsynaptic (Input) Receptors

H1, H2

H3

Presynaptic Autoreceptors

TRANSPORTERS

OVERVIEW

HISTAMINE SYNTHESIS

HA synthesis begins with histidine.

ENZYME STEPS

Why is it called histamine?

From Histamine on Wikipedia:

"By 1913 the name histamine was in use, using forms of *histo-* (tissue) and *amine* (nitrogen-group containing), yielding 'tissue amine'."

NOREPINEPHRINE (NE)

C₈H₁₁NO₃

• The Noradrenergic Neuron
• NE Synthesis
• NE Receptors

See on PubChem

NOREPINEPHRINE SYNTHESIS

NE synthesis begins when tyrosine (TYR) is taken up into noradrenergic (norepinephrine-producing) neurons.

ENZYME STEPS

Why is it called norepinephrine / noradrenaline?

Norepinephrine and noradrenaline are two words for the same thing.Epinephrine is from Greek: epi- (upon) nephros (kidney). Adrenaline is named after the adrenal glands (located upon your kidneys).Nor- is an English prefix for compounds derived by removal of some part of another compound. In this case, norepinephrine is demethylated (-CH₃ , +H) epinephrine/adrenaline.

Notice the norepinephrine molecule has one amino group, a nitrogen holding on to two hydrogens (-NH₂), while epinephrine's nitrogen has one hydrogen and one methyl group (-CH₃).

This site, and many others, will primarily use the term norepinephrine for the neurotransmitter itself and noradrenergic to refer to the sites of its production and effects.

β-ENDORPHIN

C₁₅₈H₂₅₁N₃₉O₄₆S

MET-ENKEPHALIN

C₂₇H₃₅N₅O₇S

LEU-ENKEPHALIN

C₂₈H₃₇N₅O₇

α-NEOENDORPHIN

C₆₀H₈₉N₁₅O₁₃

β-NEOENDORPHIN

C₅₄H₇₇N₁₃O₁₂

DYNORPHIN A

C₇₅H₁₂₆N₂₄O₁₅

DYNORPHIN B

C₇₄H₁₁₅N₂₁O₁₇

• The Endorphin Neuron
• β-Endorphin Synthesis
• μ-Opioid Receptors

• The Enkephalin Neuron
• Enkephalin Synthesis
• δ-Opioid Receptors

• The Dynorphin Neuron
• Dynorphin Synthesis
• κ-Opioid Receptors

See on PubChem

OREXIN A

C₁₅₂H₂₄₃N₄₇O₄₄S₄

OREXIN B

C₁₂₃H₂₁₂N₄₄O₃₅S

• The Orexin Neuron
• Orexin A Synthesis
• Orexin B Synthesis
• OX Receptors

See on PubChem

SEROTONIN (5HT)

5-HYDROXYTRYPTAMINE

C₁₀H₁₂N₂O

• The Serotonergic Neuron
• 5HT Synthesis
• 5HT Receptors

See on PubChem

SEROTONIN SYNTHESIS

5HT synthesis begins when tryptophan is taken up into serotonergic neurons.

ENZYME STEPS

Why is it called serotonin/5HT?

First extracted from intestinal cells and named enteramine by Vittorio Erspamer in 1935, serotonin was later found in blood serum in 1948. In 1952 they were found to be the same thing: 5-hydroxytryptamine (5HT, 5-HT).

Serotonin comes from the Latin serum (fluid) and tonic (medicine).

5-Hydroxytryptamine

There is a hydroxyl group on the 5th carbon of the tryptamine.

Animated anandamide (ANA) molecule by Mplanine.

OVERVIEW

OF YOUR NEUROTRANSMITTERS